Corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. It hurts everyone who depends on the integrity of people in a position of authority. Government officials, clerks, secretaries and even ordinary peons, security officers and others are engaged in
corruption. They take bribe from common people for giving any service. Our country, Bangladesh, has topped the list of corrupt countries five times. There is none to raise voice against the galloping corruption. Even the organizations that collects data about corruption are themselves corrupted in a very secret way! However there are many reasons behind this corruption. The greed for power, pelf, wealth and money is the root cause of corruption. Avarice, dishonesty, nepotism and favoritism are also responsible for corruption. Corruption is not a new phenomenon. What is new and worrying is the magnitude and size of corruption. It has spread its tentacles to every sphere of national life. It is one of the biggest threats to development. It can tear the very fabric of the society and, infect, it is doing so. Corruption benefits the rich and the well-to-do. It enriches the rich and disproportionably affects the poor, unprotected and the underprivileged and thereby it deepens their deprivation. Of the 158 countries ranked in 2005, Iceland, Finland, and New Zealand were the least corrupt and Turkmenistan, Bangladesh, and Chad were the most corrupt.
The concept of Corruption
Corruption has been a part of human societies since the oldest of times. Corruption, fraud, embezzlement, theft, bribes, and kickbacks are all forms in which people try to increase their income at the cost of others. Beginning in the latter half of the 1990s, an increased recognition of these costs led to many international and nongovernmental organizations demanding that political and business leaders demonstrate high standards of honesty, ethics, and social responsibility. This in turn led to a concerted fight against corruption, money laundering, and black markets around the world as well as to the recognition of the importance of governance. Public sector corruption leads to the misallocation of a country’s economic resources while redistributing income within that country. Selection and retention of public officials, at least in democratic societies, will depend on the public officials demonstrating honest behavior. It is evident in every society ever existed.
Definition
As the subject of this work is corruption in Bangladesh Public Sector it is mandatory to define both corruption and public sector as these are the core elements of the paper.
Corruption:
Although disagreements abound, corruption is most frequently defined as the misuse of public power for personal gains. Corruption, unlike fraud and embezzlement, refers to decisions that politicians and public bureaucrats (public officials for ease of exposition) make based on authority delegated to them by the populace. When these decisions are motivated by personal gains rather than by the public’s interest, other than politicians favoring segments of the population they represent, this is considered corruption. One of the difficulties of identifying corruption is that these self-serving decisions can often be disguised as good public policy.
Corruption exists in two broad forms although there are many variations within these two categories and often the two will be intertwined with each other. Administrative, or petty, corruption refers to acts of bribery, kickbacks, or grease money, in which public officials extract a payment for implementing an existing decision. In its purest form this type of corruption is an attempt to redistribute rents or profits associated with a decision. When officials accept a bribe for favoring a particular contractor for a public construction project, they are asking the contractor to share profits associated with the contract with them. The main consequence of such an act of corruption is the redistribution of income that in turn will have some influence on resource allocation.
Public sector:
The part of the economy concerned with providing basic government services in known public sector. The composition of the public sector varies by country, but in most countries the public sector includes such services as the police, military, public roads, public transit, primary education and healthcare for the poor. The public sector might provide services that non-payer cannot be excluded from (such as street lighting), services which benefit all of society rather than just the individual who uses the service (such as public education), and services that encourage equal opportunity. Businesses and organizations that are not part of the public sector are part of the private sector. The private sector is composed of the business sector, which is intended to earn a profit for the owners of the enterprise, and the voluntary sector, which includes charitable organizations.
Forms and Types of Corruption
Forms of corruption:
Bribery: Bribery is the bestowing of a benefit in order to unduly influence an action or decision. It can be initiated by a person who seeks bribes or by a person who offers and pays brides. Active bribery refers to the offering or paying of the bribe, while passive bribery refers to the receiving of the bride. The “benefit” can be virtually any inducement, such as money, company shares, inside information, entertainment and employment of the mere promise of incentive. The benefits gained can be direct or indirect. It can be described as indirect gains when the benefits flow e.g. to a friend, family, private business, campaign funds or political Parties.
Embezzlement and Fraud:
These offences involve the taking or conversion of money, property or valuable items by an individual who is not entitled to them but, by virtue of his or her position or employment, has access to them. Employment-related equipment, such as motor vehicles, may be used for private purposes. Those offences do not include “theft’’ per se but only situation involving a public official or where the public interest is crucially affected.
Extortion:
Extortion relies on coercion, such as the use or threat of violence or the exposure of damaging information, to induce cooperation. Extortion can be committed by government officials but they can also be victims of it. An example of extortion is when police officers threaten to arrest people to extract money from them.
A conflict of interests:
It arises when a person, often a public sector employee or official, is influenced by personal considerations when doing his or her job. Thus, decisions are made for the wrong reasons. This kind of corruption involves, for example, engaging in transactions, selling influence, or acquiring a position that is incompatible with one’s official duties for the purpose of illegal enrichment.
Favoritism, Nepotism and Cronyism:
Favoritism is a general term used to describe use of power to make decisions on the basis of personal relations rather than on objective grounds. There are several forms of favoritism. Among the most commonly cited are nepotism and cronyism. Nepotism applies to a situation in which a person uses his or her public power to obtain a favor for a member of his or her family. Cronyism is a broader term than nepotism, and covers situations where preferences are given to friends and colleagues and favored political supporters. These two kinds of corruption, nepotism and cronyism, can easily overlap.
Political Corruption:
Political corruption is the abuse of entrusted power by political leaders for private gain, with the objective of increasing power or private wealth. It need not involve money changing hands; it may take the form of granting favors that “poison politics and threaten democracy”. An example of political corruption is when political parties or candidates receive money in exchange for the goodwill towards the entity or group making the contribution.
Other Types of Corruption
There are three broad classifications of corruption, which are however not mutually exclusive:
Petty Corruption:
Practiced on a smaller scale Defined as the use of public office for private benefit in the course of delivering a public service. Usually involves relatively small amounts of money, including bribery (grease money or speed payments) the public servant abuses his/her position by accepting a benefit for what are a routine transaction or approval. The direct victim of this abuse of power is the citizen.
Grand Corruption:
The most dangerous and covert type of corruption. Instances where policy making, its design and implementation are compromised by corrupt practices. Found where public officers in high positions (such as councilors), in the process of making decisions of significant economic value, routinely demand bribes or kickbacks for ensuring that tenders or contracts are awarded to specific contractors.
Business Corruption:
Often not regarded as a crime, rather as a means to accelerate business processes. Proponents claim that the end result is not affected; the mechanisms used to achieve the result are simply accelerated; In essence, bureaucracy is bypassed and time is utilized Includes bribery, insider trading, money laundering, embezzlement, tax evasion and accounting irregularities.
Chaotic Corruption:
A disorganized system where there is no clarity regarding whom to bribe and how much payment should be offered. There is:
no guarantee that further bribes will not have to be paid to other officials;
no reasonable assurance that the favor will be delivered;
no coordination between the recipients of benefits, with the result
that the price of corruption is often inflated
All these distinctions have no value: no form of corruption is better or worse than another.
Organized Corruption:
A well-organized system of corruption in which there is a clear idea:
of whom to bribe;
how much should be offered
And are confident that they will receive the favor in return.
Organized corruption is often perpetrated by crime gangs and syndicates and includes white-collar crime and identity theft.
Corruption in Bangladesh
Bangladesh places at the bottom of many corruption and governance indexes. Transparency International (TI) ranked Bangladesh as the most corrupt country in the world for five consecutive years (2001-2005). TI considers both political and administrative corruption in its’ index. The World Bank identified Bangladesh as the 12th and 17th among the most corrupt countries in 2004 and 2005 in the corruption index of the governance indicators. Furthermore, the World Economic Forum identified Bangladesh as the most corrupt country among 125 in the corruption sub-index of the Global Competitiveness Report for 2006-07. Corruption directly affects the cultural, political, and economic fabric of society; it damages vital organs of the state and poses a threat to national security. Majority of nation’s population become victims of corruptions and the poor suffers its astringent burdens at the worst. It is axiomatic that Bangladesh has become a fertile ground of “corruptions” since its independence.
Reasons behind corruption in Bangladesh
It is often claimed that poverty is a very important factor in the development of corruption and that can be true. It is for example, obvious that the risk of corruption in the public sector increases if the civil-service wages are so low that they do not allow public workers to support their families. If poverty was, however, the only cause of corruption it would be hard to explain the fact that most of those involved in “grand corruption” have much more than they and their families will ever need. It can therefore been argued that corruption “can emerge from wealth and abundance, or it can emerge from the lack if it”.
There are so many reasons behind corruption. Some of the courses of corruption are mentioned below:
Poor governance:
Poor governance is the underlying problem of our country. It creates an environment in which corruption will flourish. Because of poor governance there is no transparency or accountability of the government to the public. As such the politicians, public and private employees all get involved with corruption.
Poverty:
Around 50 percent of the people of Bangladesh live under poverty line. They are unable to manage their basic needs. Honesty, morality, virtue etc. are meaningless to them. They need two meals a day for them and their family. So they do not hesitate to adopt unfair means or offer bribe to fulfill their needs.
Unemployment:
This is a vicious problem for Bangladesh. There are around 140 million people in Bangladesh and most of them are unemployed. It is also not possible for the government of a poor country like Bangladesh to create employment for all its peoples. The demand for jobs is much greater than its availability. So people try to get a job by offering bribe.
Lack of patriotism:
Patriotism is a divine virtue of human being. It is normal that every citizen would love his/her motherland. A true patriot loves his country and cannot indulge in activities like corruption. But in our country the number of patriotic people are decreasing day by day and the number of corrupted people are increasing due to lack of patriotism.
Poor rule of law:
There are hundreds of laws in Bangladesh but the proper application of law is rare. Also there are lots of ambiguous laws that need to be amended. Besides the law enforcing agencies in Bangladesh is also corrupted. All these create an environment for corruption and corruption gradually have its roof deep in the society.
Political Unrest:
Poly typical unrest is a common scenario of Bangladesh science independence. The political parties in our country want to go power by any means. When they are in power, they indulge in corruption in favor their party rank and files. When the opposition parties go to power them also follow the same path and engage in corruption.
Poor payments:
The government servants are paid very poor salaries which is barely enough to maintain their families. Although the price of essentials is going up every day their salaries are not increased in proportion to the market price. Besides, there are no arrangement for incentives for efficiency or performance. Failing to maintain their families some of them indulge in unfair means. Of course there are a segment of the government who are by nature corrupted.
Corruption in Bangladesh Public Sector
In Bangladesh, corruption has become an accepted behavior as if the government has legalized the payments of bribes. These practices have created national, moral and economic catastrophes to this poor nation. Unfortunately, for many of us the idea is that “it’s solely the Government’s responsibility to fight and prevent corruptions” but I strongly believe that this conclusion is not absolute.
Corruption in Political System:
Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties, is done under color of law or involves trading in influence. The party leaders attain the higher post in the government assume great responsibility and enjoy more privileges. The party cadres at different level also share the privileges. They get the tenders, selected for employment, preferred for admission, promotion training at home. The biggest worldwide survey on people’s perception and experience about corruption, says 50% of Bangladeshis surveyed in 2010 the government measures effective in curbing corruption. According to the survey political parties and police are the most corrupt institutions followed by govt. and leaders of political parties at that time.
According to the final consideration of Bangladeshi respondents, it is the govt. that holds the authority to curb corruption. It says military and religious organization in Bangladesh are the least corrupt institutions. 93% respondents believe political parties and police are the most corrupt public service institutions followed by the judiciary, parliament and govt. administration. 90% of the respondents perceive that the government is influenced by particular quarters like activists and supporters of political parties and a special section of businessmen. Bangladesh ranks second in the list with regard to victims of corruption in key public service sectors.
According to TIB Executive Director Dr. Iftekharuzzaman- In the past few year’s issues of the Padma bridge, Hall-mark, Share market and corruption in railway recruitments had been widely discussed in the public domain and they influenced people’s perceptions. Corruption is a problem not only for BD but also for all countries across the globe. There was a background to the public perception of political parties becoming the most corrupt institution in BD. When the survey was conducted, there was political unrest were raised about the role of the government and leaders of political parties at that time. Queried as to what types of corruption political parties indulge in, Dr. Iftekhar said the survey didn’t cover it, but people thought there was corruption in political parties.
Corruption in Administration:
Corruption has been and continues to be an integral part of culture. The level of corruption varies depending on how influential a position the particular civil servant holds. The civil servants have by and large become accustomed to live a life style far beyond their legal income. The citizens have accepted the stark reality that nothing moves without adequately satisfying the concerned civil servant.
An opinion survey conducted in 1992 of household heads in Dhaka City found that 68.25% of respondents paid bribes to concerned officials to get services. The findings of the survey indicated that members of law enforcing agencies, customs and income tax departments were involved in administrative corruption. Another finding of the survey reaffirmed the commonly held belief that the higher the level of bureaucracy the lower the frequency but higher the amount of bribe; and the lower the level of bureaucracy the higher the frequency but less the amount of bribe.
The Bangladesh Unnayan Parishad (BUP) only recently conducted an opinion survey of 2197 individuals selected randomly from sixty districts. This survey indicated that 95% of respondents felt that the police department was most corrupt while 82% opined that the secretariat (where most ministries/divisions are located) and the judicial system were most corrupt. In the corruption indicator the customs department came second with 91% of respondents considering its officials extremely corrupt. The officials of the Taxation Department were placed in third position as 90% of the respondents felt they were extremely corrupt.
Both the surveys reaffirm the ever-widening horizon of administrative corruption. Another survey of people’s opinions at two upazilas in Northern Bangladesh indicated that the then upazila structure was not only controlled by centrally-debuted civil servants posted there but they were involved in misappropriating public funds for their own use. Villagers had to bribe civil servants on a routine basis either to bypass certain access encounters or to speed up the process of service delivery.
Now one may ask the question as to why such large-scale administrative corruption exists. The reasons for such corruption can be summed up. First, civil servants involved in corrupt practices in most cases do not lose their jobs. Very rarely they are dismissed from service on charges pertaining to corruption.
Corruption in Judiciary:
According to the Global Corruption Barometer 2013, over half of the surveyed households perceive the judiciary to be corrupt, thus rendering the judiciary the second most corrupt sector in Bangladesh (out of the 12 institutions included in the survey). According to the Human Rights Report 2013, some human rights observers alleged that in many cases magistrates, attorneys and court officials demanded bribes from defendants. Furthermore, corruption within the judiciary has hindered many victims from obtaining a fair trial.
Doing Business 2014 and the Global Competitiveness Report 2013-2014 reveal that Bangladesh’s courts are both inefficient and subject to political influences from members of government, citizens and companies. The Transformation points out that lower courts are marred by corruption and often subject to political interference. Companies should note that the ineffective judiciary and lack of appropriate dispute resolution mechanisms make it difficult to enforce contracts or to resolve business disputes in Bangladesh, according to the Investment.
In Bangladesh, court procedures are often cumbersome, politically influenced and corruption-prone. This is confirmed by the Human Rights Report 2013, which states judicial corruption and inefficiency, lack of resources and a case backlog taint the judicial system. Furthermore, Freedom in the World 2013 notes that judicial appointments are marred by political bias.
Corruption in Bangladesh Police:
Bangladesh’s ordinary people, for whom police is the most visible and powerful presence of the state in the rural and urban settings, pay them bribes on a daily basis, says an Asia-based human rights body. The Asian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) in a statement said that Bangladesh’s law-enforcement agents had a reputation for abusing authority through coercive means.
Police are perceived to be very corrupt in the eyes of Bangladeshi households. This is displayed in the Global Corruption Barometer 2013, in which the surveyed households perceive the police to be the institution most affected by corruption (out of the 12 listed institutions in the survey). A 2012 report, published by the Refugee Documentation Center, states that pervasive corruption within the Bangladeshi police force is a direct result of the low salaries of police officials. Corruption coupled with impunity has made the security apparatus in Bangladesh not only one of the most corrupt institutions in the country but also a tool in the hands of the ruling elite to deal with political opponents, as noted in the same report.
According to the Global Integrity Report 2010, law enforcement agencies are not protected from political interference, and appointments to the police department are often influenced by bribes, nepotism and party loyalties, rather than by professional qualifications. The Human Rights Report 2013 notes that the government has taken steps to address police corruption and integrity issues. Nonetheless, corruption and impunity continue to be widespread within the force, and the punishment of officials who have committed abuses is predominantly limited to those perceived to be opponents of the Awami League government.
Corruption in Health sector:
Corruption, especially in the health sector, is a fact of life in Bangladesh. Every day, the newspaper’s report on some aspects of health sector corruption spanning from informal payments to access services to fraudulent lab report to procurement of medicine and supplies to absenteeism of staff and healthcare providers practicing privately at office hours etc. The people just become helpless victims to this seemingly organized crime!
Corruption in the health sector has gained increased attention globally in recent times. There is consensus among the health policymakers, planners and donors that corruption affects healthcare access and outcomes at both individual and household level, and has negative effects on their health and well-being. It has now become imperative to understand the theoretical underpinning of the problem, identify and measure health sector corruption, and anti-corruption strategies needed.
Bribes of up to Tk 10 lakh change hands during the recruitment, transfer and promotion of personnel in the health sector, according to the latest Transparency International Bangladesh (TIB) report. The anti-corruption NGO said the bribes were taken by health department officials, officials from the civil surgeon’s office and by leaders of the ruling party. In its National Household Survey in 2012, TIB found that 40.2% households seeking government medical services were victims of irregularities and corruption worth an estimated monetary value of Tk70.3 crore.
Health and Family Welfare Minister Mohammed Nasim rejected the report’s findings saying: “TIB always works to deliberately blame different sectors. They should show where the corruption took place as people are now getting free medical treatment and medicine as well.” According to the study, Tk3-5 lakh is paid in bribes during the recruitment of ad hoc doctors while Tk1-5 lakh is exchanged in bribes during 3rd and 4th class employee recruitment, the report said. To transfer one’s posting, it costs administrative officials based in and near Dhaka Tk5-10 lakh.
Doctors pay Tk1-2 lakh to be transferred from the upazilas to the capital. To remain in a preferred posting for a long time it costs Tk2.5 lakh or more, while a promotion requires Tk5-10 lakh. The study, prepared from November 2013 to August 2014, was a qualitative research project.
The primary sources of data were medical service providers, employees and officials of the health department, specialists, media professionals and representatives of professional organizations. The study collected its secondary data from the TIB’s National Household Survey 2012 and its report card survey of 28 health institutions.
Commission rates for doctors accounted for as much as 30-50% of treatment prices, and brokers bagged 10-30% in commissions. The TIB executive director, Iftekharuzzaman, said: “We are concerned that the country’s budget allotment for the health sector has been gradually decreased. While it should be a minimum 5% of GDP according to international standards, we see that 0.84% of GDP was allotted in Bangladesh in FY2013-14.” The report points out that the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends Bangladesh’s annual per capita expenditure on health care to be Tk2652 which is currently a mere Tk390. “The development expenditure has also been decreased from 42.2% in FY2008-09 to 38.3% in FY2013-14,” he said.
Corruption in Education System:
The education sector is considered to be particularly prone to corruption, in large part due to the huge amounts of resources being disbursed through often-complex administrative layers, all the way from central government to local schools. Furthermore, the value placed by the public on education makes it an attractive target for manipulation. Education service providers are in a powerful position vis-à-vis families and young people and are able to extort favors from those striving to succeed in the education system. Teachers and administrators are often influenced by corruption higher up the chain, which leaves them vulnerable and sometimes, even unpaid, prompting a resort to petty bribery and other forms of corruption. At the same time, parents are driven by a desire to provide the best opportunities for their children and may be unaware of what constitutes an illegal or illegitimate charge.
A relatively low 12 per cent of Bangladeshi people see the education system as corrupt or highly corrupt. This percentage has been declining over the years, from 23 per cent in 2010, indicating citizens feel that the situation is improving.
Studies point to specific forms of corruption in the education sector, however: the collection of unauthorized payments for admission to schools and skewed distribution of free text books, coercing students to pay private tuition as well as the demand for bribes to disburse school stipends and grants. Less obvious forms of corruption also occur, including teacher misconduct, absenteeism and neglect of duties, inactive school management committees and lack of accountability mechanisms. Corruption in procurement in education has also recently received attention as a problem area. Sexual forms of corruption, involving practices such as sexual harassment or paying for grades with sexual favors, are also an area of concern in the country’s education sector.
The causes of these various forms of corruption are many. One recurring theme that emerges is the under-remuneration of teachers and staff, who in some cases even go unpaid for months.
While there are little empirical evidence on how corrupt practices occur, some of these are mentioned in this literature.
Strategies to combat Corruption in Bangladesh Public Sector
As stakeholders in good governance and institution mediating between the state and the public, the organizations that comprise “civil society”- citizen groups, nongovernmental organizations, trade unions, business associations, think tanks, academia, religious organizations and last media can have an important role to play in constraining corruption. This is true at the country level as well as internationally. Civil Society Organizations (CSO), with Transparency International spearheading the fight against corruption is the most prominent example of what an international civil society organization can achieve in awareness- raising, pressuring government as well as international organizations for change and pressuring governments as well as international organizations for change and working with various sectors to implement innovative anti-corruption reforms. Civil society as a third sector in a new governance structure can play a vital role in limiting corruption but they also have their limits. Without being elected democratically they lack formal legitimacy of political parties as well as accountability measures a potential entry point for various civil society groups with questionable motives. A high degree of public scrutiny is thus important to hold civil society groups to the same accountability standards as the following steps:
Civil Society’s Role in Fighting Corruption:
Since most cases of corruption involve public officials and private companies, Civil Society as an independent actor representing the interests of the general public is uniquely positioned to investigate and bring to light cases of corruption. For Civil society to realize its full potential it requires an appropriate legal and regulatory framework, including basic human rights such as the freedom of expression, association and the freedom to establish non-governmental entities. Requirements for registering should be reasonable and not constitute a serious hindrance in setting up a new CSO. In addition to the necessary breathing space, CSOs must further have the opportunity to mobilize funding. Tax exemption for donations is one way in effectiveness of CSOS is a function of access to information and knowledge as well as the ability to attract talent. Capacity constraints such as a lack of well-educated and highly motivated people can severely compromise the positive role civil society can play in combating corruption.
The Role of the Media:
A free and open media help expose levels of corruption by uncovering and shedding light on abuses. In transition economies on Eastern on Eastern and central Europe, greater openness felt by the media since the rail of communism has brought with it a plethora of stories of fraud, corruption, and criminal activity, making the media perhaps the most persistent institution in the fight against corruption. The Internet provides unprecedented opportunities of disseminating knowledge and increasing transparency across national borders in a timely fashion at low cost.
Accountability and Legitimacy Issues:
Civil Society Organizations (CSOS are not democratically elected. It should be in the interest of CSO to adhere to high standards of accountability, transparency and democratic management structures. The increasing availability if donor funding for CSO but it can also set wrong incentives. Some CSO are founded to attract donor funding for the personal benefit of founders and stuff. It would further be naive to assume that CSOs are immune to corruption. If co-opted by businesses of powerful elite’s they can be part of the problem, too. The public as well as donors should apply scrutiny in funding and working with CSOs. A strong track record and transparent business practices are usually good indicator of serious commitment and trustworthiness.
Transparency:
Transparency via public scrutiny has proven to be one of the most powerful forms of monitoring public officials. Such transparency can be fostered by a number of measures, including: opening sessions of the parliament, government, and the courts to the public; registering lobbying activities; and publishing the voting records of parliamentarians, annual reports of government bodies, A free and vibrant media is another important factor in making transparency work for the general public.
Recommendations
Establish the office of Ombudsman for curving corruption fairly;
Reform the anticorruption bureau of Bangladesh for active against corruption;
Develop comprehensive national strategies for combating corruption;
Strengthen law enforcement mechanisms, including the role of the judiciary and provide witness protection programs;
Increase transparency through the establishment of competitive public procurement procedures and encourage the adoption of international rules in this area;
Improve conditions for international investment through simplification of government procedures,
Improve transparency and accountability in budget preparation, execution, and oversight of expenditure,
Develop codes of ethics in public administration to be enforced by strong sanctions;
Strengthen procedures for an effective and merit-based civil service, particularly recruitment, promotion and pay,
Adopt “Freedom of Information” laws and provide access to public information,
Strengthen parliamentary oversight, independent audit and investigative bodies to be backed by sufficient human and financial resources.
Conclusion
Corruption is a complex multi-faceted social phenomenon with innumerable manifestations. It takes place as an outcome of deficiencies in the existing public administration apparatuses and systems as well as cultural, economic, political and social factors. Differences of opinion still exist as to the meaning of the term corruption. This is primarily because individuals look at corruption from their own vantage points influenced by surrounding environment. But what is heartening is that in recent years corruption is viewed from a much broader perspective rather than looking at it from moral and functional angles only. The causes of corruption are as varied as the phenomenon itself. Corruption results from the presence of a number of factors. There are many forms of corruption. To understand the dynamics of so many types of corruption attempts have been made to classify different forms of corruption into broad categories. What transpires from such a categorization is that outsiders can sponsor corruption resultant of political scandal, institutionalized and administrative malfeasance. These government needs a well-coordinated, well-understood overall strategy that limits opportunities for abuse of public office, increases the likelihood that individuals will be able to profit from corrupt acts, whether they are giving and receiving bribes. Moreover, the civil societies of the country should come forward to establish the right of the people and to ensure the rule of law in Bangladesh. The professionals, the intellectuals through meetings and sittings, attending and participating the seminars and symposium and writing and contributing to the media can raise a general awareness to build up a corruption-free prosperous Bangladesh in future.
Fahim Ahmed
corruption. They take bribe from common people for giving any service. Our country, Bangladesh, has topped the list of corrupt countries five times. There is none to raise voice against the galloping corruption. Even the organizations that collects data about corruption are themselves corrupted in a very secret way! However there are many reasons behind this corruption. The greed for power, pelf, wealth and money is the root cause of corruption. Avarice, dishonesty, nepotism and favoritism are also responsible for corruption. Corruption is not a new phenomenon. What is new and worrying is the magnitude and size of corruption. It has spread its tentacles to every sphere of national life. It is one of the biggest threats to development. It can tear the very fabric of the society and, infect, it is doing so. Corruption benefits the rich and the well-to-do. It enriches the rich and disproportionably affects the poor, unprotected and the underprivileged and thereby it deepens their deprivation. Of the 158 countries ranked in 2005, Iceland, Finland, and New Zealand were the least corrupt and Turkmenistan, Bangladesh, and Chad were the most corrupt.
The concept of Corruption
Corruption has been a part of human societies since the oldest of times. Corruption, fraud, embezzlement, theft, bribes, and kickbacks are all forms in which people try to increase their income at the cost of others. Beginning in the latter half of the 1990s, an increased recognition of these costs led to many international and nongovernmental organizations demanding that political and business leaders demonstrate high standards of honesty, ethics, and social responsibility. This in turn led to a concerted fight against corruption, money laundering, and black markets around the world as well as to the recognition of the importance of governance. Public sector corruption leads to the misallocation of a country’s economic resources while redistributing income within that country. Selection and retention of public officials, at least in democratic societies, will depend on the public officials demonstrating honest behavior. It is evident in every society ever existed.
Definition
As the subject of this work is corruption in Bangladesh Public Sector it is mandatory to define both corruption and public sector as these are the core elements of the paper.
Corruption:
Although disagreements abound, corruption is most frequently defined as the misuse of public power for personal gains. Corruption, unlike fraud and embezzlement, refers to decisions that politicians and public bureaucrats (public officials for ease of exposition) make based on authority delegated to them by the populace. When these decisions are motivated by personal gains rather than by the public’s interest, other than politicians favoring segments of the population they represent, this is considered corruption. One of the difficulties of identifying corruption is that these self-serving decisions can often be disguised as good public policy.
Corruption exists in two broad forms although there are many variations within these two categories and often the two will be intertwined with each other. Administrative, or petty, corruption refers to acts of bribery, kickbacks, or grease money, in which public officials extract a payment for implementing an existing decision. In its purest form this type of corruption is an attempt to redistribute rents or profits associated with a decision. When officials accept a bribe for favoring a particular contractor for a public construction project, they are asking the contractor to share profits associated with the contract with them. The main consequence of such an act of corruption is the redistribution of income that in turn will have some influence on resource allocation.
Public sector:
The part of the economy concerned with providing basic government services in known public sector. The composition of the public sector varies by country, but in most countries the public sector includes such services as the police, military, public roads, public transit, primary education and healthcare for the poor. The public sector might provide services that non-payer cannot be excluded from (such as street lighting), services which benefit all of society rather than just the individual who uses the service (such as public education), and services that encourage equal opportunity. Businesses and organizations that are not part of the public sector are part of the private sector. The private sector is composed of the business sector, which is intended to earn a profit for the owners of the enterprise, and the voluntary sector, which includes charitable organizations.
Forms and Types of Corruption
Forms of corruption:
Bribery: Bribery is the bestowing of a benefit in order to unduly influence an action or decision. It can be initiated by a person who seeks bribes or by a person who offers and pays brides. Active bribery refers to the offering or paying of the bribe, while passive bribery refers to the receiving of the bride. The “benefit” can be virtually any inducement, such as money, company shares, inside information, entertainment and employment of the mere promise of incentive. The benefits gained can be direct or indirect. It can be described as indirect gains when the benefits flow e.g. to a friend, family, private business, campaign funds or political Parties.
Embezzlement and Fraud:
These offences involve the taking or conversion of money, property or valuable items by an individual who is not entitled to them but, by virtue of his or her position or employment, has access to them. Employment-related equipment, such as motor vehicles, may be used for private purposes. Those offences do not include “theft’’ per se but only situation involving a public official or where the public interest is crucially affected.
Extortion:
Extortion relies on coercion, such as the use or threat of violence or the exposure of damaging information, to induce cooperation. Extortion can be committed by government officials but they can also be victims of it. An example of extortion is when police officers threaten to arrest people to extract money from them.
A conflict of interests:
It arises when a person, often a public sector employee or official, is influenced by personal considerations when doing his or her job. Thus, decisions are made for the wrong reasons. This kind of corruption involves, for example, engaging in transactions, selling influence, or acquiring a position that is incompatible with one’s official duties for the purpose of illegal enrichment.
Favoritism, Nepotism and Cronyism:
Favoritism is a general term used to describe use of power to make decisions on the basis of personal relations rather than on objective grounds. There are several forms of favoritism. Among the most commonly cited are nepotism and cronyism. Nepotism applies to a situation in which a person uses his or her public power to obtain a favor for a member of his or her family. Cronyism is a broader term than nepotism, and covers situations where preferences are given to friends and colleagues and favored political supporters. These two kinds of corruption, nepotism and cronyism, can easily overlap.
Political Corruption:
Political corruption is the abuse of entrusted power by political leaders for private gain, with the objective of increasing power or private wealth. It need not involve money changing hands; it may take the form of granting favors that “poison politics and threaten democracy”. An example of political corruption is when political parties or candidates receive money in exchange for the goodwill towards the entity or group making the contribution.
Other Types of Corruption
There are three broad classifications of corruption, which are however not mutually exclusive:
Petty Corruption:
Practiced on a smaller scale Defined as the use of public office for private benefit in the course of delivering a public service. Usually involves relatively small amounts of money, including bribery (grease money or speed payments) the public servant abuses his/her position by accepting a benefit for what are a routine transaction or approval. The direct victim of this abuse of power is the citizen.
Grand Corruption:
The most dangerous and covert type of corruption. Instances where policy making, its design and implementation are compromised by corrupt practices. Found where public officers in high positions (such as councilors), in the process of making decisions of significant economic value, routinely demand bribes or kickbacks for ensuring that tenders or contracts are awarded to specific contractors.
Business Corruption:
Often not regarded as a crime, rather as a means to accelerate business processes. Proponents claim that the end result is not affected; the mechanisms used to achieve the result are simply accelerated; In essence, bureaucracy is bypassed and time is utilized Includes bribery, insider trading, money laundering, embezzlement, tax evasion and accounting irregularities.
Chaotic Corruption:
A disorganized system where there is no clarity regarding whom to bribe and how much payment should be offered. There is:
no guarantee that further bribes will not have to be paid to other officials;
no reasonable assurance that the favor will be delivered;
no coordination between the recipients of benefits, with the result
that the price of corruption is often inflated
All these distinctions have no value: no form of corruption is better or worse than another.
Organized Corruption:
A well-organized system of corruption in which there is a clear idea:
of whom to bribe;
how much should be offered
And are confident that they will receive the favor in return.
Organized corruption is often perpetrated by crime gangs and syndicates and includes white-collar crime and identity theft.
Corruption in Bangladesh
Bangladesh places at the bottom of many corruption and governance indexes. Transparency International (TI) ranked Bangladesh as the most corrupt country in the world for five consecutive years (2001-2005). TI considers both political and administrative corruption in its’ index. The World Bank identified Bangladesh as the 12th and 17th among the most corrupt countries in 2004 and 2005 in the corruption index of the governance indicators. Furthermore, the World Economic Forum identified Bangladesh as the most corrupt country among 125 in the corruption sub-index of the Global Competitiveness Report for 2006-07. Corruption directly affects the cultural, political, and economic fabric of society; it damages vital organs of the state and poses a threat to national security. Majority of nation’s population become victims of corruptions and the poor suffers its astringent burdens at the worst. It is axiomatic that Bangladesh has become a fertile ground of “corruptions” since its independence.
Reasons behind corruption in Bangladesh
It is often claimed that poverty is a very important factor in the development of corruption and that can be true. It is for example, obvious that the risk of corruption in the public sector increases if the civil-service wages are so low that they do not allow public workers to support their families. If poverty was, however, the only cause of corruption it would be hard to explain the fact that most of those involved in “grand corruption” have much more than they and their families will ever need. It can therefore been argued that corruption “can emerge from wealth and abundance, or it can emerge from the lack if it”.
There are so many reasons behind corruption. Some of the courses of corruption are mentioned below:
Poor governance:
Poor governance is the underlying problem of our country. It creates an environment in which corruption will flourish. Because of poor governance there is no transparency or accountability of the government to the public. As such the politicians, public and private employees all get involved with corruption.
Poverty:
Around 50 percent of the people of Bangladesh live under poverty line. They are unable to manage their basic needs. Honesty, morality, virtue etc. are meaningless to them. They need two meals a day for them and their family. So they do not hesitate to adopt unfair means or offer bribe to fulfill their needs.
Unemployment:
This is a vicious problem for Bangladesh. There are around 140 million people in Bangladesh and most of them are unemployed. It is also not possible for the government of a poor country like Bangladesh to create employment for all its peoples. The demand for jobs is much greater than its availability. So people try to get a job by offering bribe.
Lack of patriotism:
Patriotism is a divine virtue of human being. It is normal that every citizen would love his/her motherland. A true patriot loves his country and cannot indulge in activities like corruption. But in our country the number of patriotic people are decreasing day by day and the number of corrupted people are increasing due to lack of patriotism.
Poor rule of law:
There are hundreds of laws in Bangladesh but the proper application of law is rare. Also there are lots of ambiguous laws that need to be amended. Besides the law enforcing agencies in Bangladesh is also corrupted. All these create an environment for corruption and corruption gradually have its roof deep in the society.
Political Unrest:
Poly typical unrest is a common scenario of Bangladesh science independence. The political parties in our country want to go power by any means. When they are in power, they indulge in corruption in favor their party rank and files. When the opposition parties go to power them also follow the same path and engage in corruption.
Poor payments:
The government servants are paid very poor salaries which is barely enough to maintain their families. Although the price of essentials is going up every day their salaries are not increased in proportion to the market price. Besides, there are no arrangement for incentives for efficiency or performance. Failing to maintain their families some of them indulge in unfair means. Of course there are a segment of the government who are by nature corrupted.
Corruption in Bangladesh Public Sector
In Bangladesh, corruption has become an accepted behavior as if the government has legalized the payments of bribes. These practices have created national, moral and economic catastrophes to this poor nation. Unfortunately, for many of us the idea is that “it’s solely the Government’s responsibility to fight and prevent corruptions” but I strongly believe that this conclusion is not absolute.
Corruption in Political System:
Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties, is done under color of law or involves trading in influence. The party leaders attain the higher post in the government assume great responsibility and enjoy more privileges. The party cadres at different level also share the privileges. They get the tenders, selected for employment, preferred for admission, promotion training at home. The biggest worldwide survey on people’s perception and experience about corruption, says 50% of Bangladeshis surveyed in 2010 the government measures effective in curbing corruption. According to the survey political parties and police are the most corrupt institutions followed by govt. and leaders of political parties at that time.
According to the final consideration of Bangladeshi respondents, it is the govt. that holds the authority to curb corruption. It says military and religious organization in Bangladesh are the least corrupt institutions. 93% respondents believe political parties and police are the most corrupt public service institutions followed by the judiciary, parliament and govt. administration. 90% of the respondents perceive that the government is influenced by particular quarters like activists and supporters of political parties and a special section of businessmen. Bangladesh ranks second in the list with regard to victims of corruption in key public service sectors.
According to TIB Executive Director Dr. Iftekharuzzaman- In the past few year’s issues of the Padma bridge, Hall-mark, Share market and corruption in railway recruitments had been widely discussed in the public domain and they influenced people’s perceptions. Corruption is a problem not only for BD but also for all countries across the globe. There was a background to the public perception of political parties becoming the most corrupt institution in BD. When the survey was conducted, there was political unrest were raised about the role of the government and leaders of political parties at that time. Queried as to what types of corruption political parties indulge in, Dr. Iftekhar said the survey didn’t cover it, but people thought there was corruption in political parties.
Corruption in Administration:
Corruption has been and continues to be an integral part of culture. The level of corruption varies depending on how influential a position the particular civil servant holds. The civil servants have by and large become accustomed to live a life style far beyond their legal income. The citizens have accepted the stark reality that nothing moves without adequately satisfying the concerned civil servant.
An opinion survey conducted in 1992 of household heads in Dhaka City found that 68.25% of respondents paid bribes to concerned officials to get services. The findings of the survey indicated that members of law enforcing agencies, customs and income tax departments were involved in administrative corruption. Another finding of the survey reaffirmed the commonly held belief that the higher the level of bureaucracy the lower the frequency but higher the amount of bribe; and the lower the level of bureaucracy the higher the frequency but less the amount of bribe.
The Bangladesh Unnayan Parishad (BUP) only recently conducted an opinion survey of 2197 individuals selected randomly from sixty districts. This survey indicated that 95% of respondents felt that the police department was most corrupt while 82% opined that the secretariat (where most ministries/divisions are located) and the judicial system were most corrupt. In the corruption indicator the customs department came second with 91% of respondents considering its officials extremely corrupt. The officials of the Taxation Department were placed in third position as 90% of the respondents felt they were extremely corrupt.
Both the surveys reaffirm the ever-widening horizon of administrative corruption. Another survey of people’s opinions at two upazilas in Northern Bangladesh indicated that the then upazila structure was not only controlled by centrally-debuted civil servants posted there but they were involved in misappropriating public funds for their own use. Villagers had to bribe civil servants on a routine basis either to bypass certain access encounters or to speed up the process of service delivery.
Now one may ask the question as to why such large-scale administrative corruption exists. The reasons for such corruption can be summed up. First, civil servants involved in corrupt practices in most cases do not lose their jobs. Very rarely they are dismissed from service on charges pertaining to corruption.
Corruption in Judiciary:
According to the Global Corruption Barometer 2013, over half of the surveyed households perceive the judiciary to be corrupt, thus rendering the judiciary the second most corrupt sector in Bangladesh (out of the 12 institutions included in the survey). According to the Human Rights Report 2013, some human rights observers alleged that in many cases magistrates, attorneys and court officials demanded bribes from defendants. Furthermore, corruption within the judiciary has hindered many victims from obtaining a fair trial.
Doing Business 2014 and the Global Competitiveness Report 2013-2014 reveal that Bangladesh’s courts are both inefficient and subject to political influences from members of government, citizens and companies. The Transformation points out that lower courts are marred by corruption and often subject to political interference. Companies should note that the ineffective judiciary and lack of appropriate dispute resolution mechanisms make it difficult to enforce contracts or to resolve business disputes in Bangladesh, according to the Investment.
In Bangladesh, court procedures are often cumbersome, politically influenced and corruption-prone. This is confirmed by the Human Rights Report 2013, which states judicial corruption and inefficiency, lack of resources and a case backlog taint the judicial system. Furthermore, Freedom in the World 2013 notes that judicial appointments are marred by political bias.
Corruption in Bangladesh Police:
Bangladesh’s ordinary people, for whom police is the most visible and powerful presence of the state in the rural and urban settings, pay them bribes on a daily basis, says an Asia-based human rights body. The Asian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) in a statement said that Bangladesh’s law-enforcement agents had a reputation for abusing authority through coercive means.
Police are perceived to be very corrupt in the eyes of Bangladeshi households. This is displayed in the Global Corruption Barometer 2013, in which the surveyed households perceive the police to be the institution most affected by corruption (out of the 12 listed institutions in the survey). A 2012 report, published by the Refugee Documentation Center, states that pervasive corruption within the Bangladeshi police force is a direct result of the low salaries of police officials. Corruption coupled with impunity has made the security apparatus in Bangladesh not only one of the most corrupt institutions in the country but also a tool in the hands of the ruling elite to deal with political opponents, as noted in the same report.
According to the Global Integrity Report 2010, law enforcement agencies are not protected from political interference, and appointments to the police department are often influenced by bribes, nepotism and party loyalties, rather than by professional qualifications. The Human Rights Report 2013 notes that the government has taken steps to address police corruption and integrity issues. Nonetheless, corruption and impunity continue to be widespread within the force, and the punishment of officials who have committed abuses is predominantly limited to those perceived to be opponents of the Awami League government.
Corruption in Health sector:
Corruption, especially in the health sector, is a fact of life in Bangladesh. Every day, the newspaper’s report on some aspects of health sector corruption spanning from informal payments to access services to fraudulent lab report to procurement of medicine and supplies to absenteeism of staff and healthcare providers practicing privately at office hours etc. The people just become helpless victims to this seemingly organized crime!
Corruption in the health sector has gained increased attention globally in recent times. There is consensus among the health policymakers, planners and donors that corruption affects healthcare access and outcomes at both individual and household level, and has negative effects on their health and well-being. It has now become imperative to understand the theoretical underpinning of the problem, identify and measure health sector corruption, and anti-corruption strategies needed.
Bribes of up to Tk 10 lakh change hands during the recruitment, transfer and promotion of personnel in the health sector, according to the latest Transparency International Bangladesh (TIB) report. The anti-corruption NGO said the bribes were taken by health department officials, officials from the civil surgeon’s office and by leaders of the ruling party. In its National Household Survey in 2012, TIB found that 40.2% households seeking government medical services were victims of irregularities and corruption worth an estimated monetary value of Tk70.3 crore.
Health and Family Welfare Minister Mohammed Nasim rejected the report’s findings saying: “TIB always works to deliberately blame different sectors. They should show where the corruption took place as people are now getting free medical treatment and medicine as well.” According to the study, Tk3-5 lakh is paid in bribes during the recruitment of ad hoc doctors while Tk1-5 lakh is exchanged in bribes during 3rd and 4th class employee recruitment, the report said. To transfer one’s posting, it costs administrative officials based in and near Dhaka Tk5-10 lakh.
Doctors pay Tk1-2 lakh to be transferred from the upazilas to the capital. To remain in a preferred posting for a long time it costs Tk2.5 lakh or more, while a promotion requires Tk5-10 lakh. The study, prepared from November 2013 to August 2014, was a qualitative research project.
The primary sources of data were medical service providers, employees and officials of the health department, specialists, media professionals and representatives of professional organizations. The study collected its secondary data from the TIB’s National Household Survey 2012 and its report card survey of 28 health institutions.
Commission rates for doctors accounted for as much as 30-50% of treatment prices, and brokers bagged 10-30% in commissions. The TIB executive director, Iftekharuzzaman, said: “We are concerned that the country’s budget allotment for the health sector has been gradually decreased. While it should be a minimum 5% of GDP according to international standards, we see that 0.84% of GDP was allotted in Bangladesh in FY2013-14.” The report points out that the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends Bangladesh’s annual per capita expenditure on health care to be Tk2652 which is currently a mere Tk390. “The development expenditure has also been decreased from 42.2% in FY2008-09 to 38.3% in FY2013-14,” he said.
Corruption in Education System:
The education sector is considered to be particularly prone to corruption, in large part due to the huge amounts of resources being disbursed through often-complex administrative layers, all the way from central government to local schools. Furthermore, the value placed by the public on education makes it an attractive target for manipulation. Education service providers are in a powerful position vis-à-vis families and young people and are able to extort favors from those striving to succeed in the education system. Teachers and administrators are often influenced by corruption higher up the chain, which leaves them vulnerable and sometimes, even unpaid, prompting a resort to petty bribery and other forms of corruption. At the same time, parents are driven by a desire to provide the best opportunities for their children and may be unaware of what constitutes an illegal or illegitimate charge.
A relatively low 12 per cent of Bangladeshi people see the education system as corrupt or highly corrupt. This percentage has been declining over the years, from 23 per cent in 2010, indicating citizens feel that the situation is improving.
Studies point to specific forms of corruption in the education sector, however: the collection of unauthorized payments for admission to schools and skewed distribution of free text books, coercing students to pay private tuition as well as the demand for bribes to disburse school stipends and grants. Less obvious forms of corruption also occur, including teacher misconduct, absenteeism and neglect of duties, inactive school management committees and lack of accountability mechanisms. Corruption in procurement in education has also recently received attention as a problem area. Sexual forms of corruption, involving practices such as sexual harassment or paying for grades with sexual favors, are also an area of concern in the country’s education sector.
The causes of these various forms of corruption are many. One recurring theme that emerges is the under-remuneration of teachers and staff, who in some cases even go unpaid for months.
While there are little empirical evidence on how corrupt practices occur, some of these are mentioned in this literature.
Strategies to combat Corruption in Bangladesh Public Sector
As stakeholders in good governance and institution mediating between the state and the public, the organizations that comprise “civil society”- citizen groups, nongovernmental organizations, trade unions, business associations, think tanks, academia, religious organizations and last media can have an important role to play in constraining corruption. This is true at the country level as well as internationally. Civil Society Organizations (CSO), with Transparency International spearheading the fight against corruption is the most prominent example of what an international civil society organization can achieve in awareness- raising, pressuring government as well as international organizations for change and pressuring governments as well as international organizations for change and working with various sectors to implement innovative anti-corruption reforms. Civil society as a third sector in a new governance structure can play a vital role in limiting corruption but they also have their limits. Without being elected democratically they lack formal legitimacy of political parties as well as accountability measures a potential entry point for various civil society groups with questionable motives. A high degree of public scrutiny is thus important to hold civil society groups to the same accountability standards as the following steps:
Civil Society’s Role in Fighting Corruption:
Since most cases of corruption involve public officials and private companies, Civil Society as an independent actor representing the interests of the general public is uniquely positioned to investigate and bring to light cases of corruption. For Civil society to realize its full potential it requires an appropriate legal and regulatory framework, including basic human rights such as the freedom of expression, association and the freedom to establish non-governmental entities. Requirements for registering should be reasonable and not constitute a serious hindrance in setting up a new CSO. In addition to the necessary breathing space, CSOs must further have the opportunity to mobilize funding. Tax exemption for donations is one way in effectiveness of CSOS is a function of access to information and knowledge as well as the ability to attract talent. Capacity constraints such as a lack of well-educated and highly motivated people can severely compromise the positive role civil society can play in combating corruption.
The Role of the Media:
A free and open media help expose levels of corruption by uncovering and shedding light on abuses. In transition economies on Eastern on Eastern and central Europe, greater openness felt by the media since the rail of communism has brought with it a plethora of stories of fraud, corruption, and criminal activity, making the media perhaps the most persistent institution in the fight against corruption. The Internet provides unprecedented opportunities of disseminating knowledge and increasing transparency across national borders in a timely fashion at low cost.
Accountability and Legitimacy Issues:
Civil Society Organizations (CSOS are not democratically elected. It should be in the interest of CSO to adhere to high standards of accountability, transparency and democratic management structures. The increasing availability if donor funding for CSO but it can also set wrong incentives. Some CSO are founded to attract donor funding for the personal benefit of founders and stuff. It would further be naive to assume that CSOs are immune to corruption. If co-opted by businesses of powerful elite’s they can be part of the problem, too. The public as well as donors should apply scrutiny in funding and working with CSOs. A strong track record and transparent business practices are usually good indicator of serious commitment and trustworthiness.
Transparency:
Transparency via public scrutiny has proven to be one of the most powerful forms of monitoring public officials. Such transparency can be fostered by a number of measures, including: opening sessions of the parliament, government, and the courts to the public; registering lobbying activities; and publishing the voting records of parliamentarians, annual reports of government bodies, A free and vibrant media is another important factor in making transparency work for the general public.
Recommendations
Establish the office of Ombudsman for curving corruption fairly;
Reform the anticorruption bureau of Bangladesh for active against corruption;
Develop comprehensive national strategies for combating corruption;
Strengthen law enforcement mechanisms, including the role of the judiciary and provide witness protection programs;
Increase transparency through the establishment of competitive public procurement procedures and encourage the adoption of international rules in this area;
Improve conditions for international investment through simplification of government procedures,
Improve transparency and accountability in budget preparation, execution, and oversight of expenditure,
Develop codes of ethics in public administration to be enforced by strong sanctions;
Strengthen procedures for an effective and merit-based civil service, particularly recruitment, promotion and pay,
Adopt “Freedom of Information” laws and provide access to public information,
Strengthen parliamentary oversight, independent audit and investigative bodies to be backed by sufficient human and financial resources.
Conclusion
Corruption is a complex multi-faceted social phenomenon with innumerable manifestations. It takes place as an outcome of deficiencies in the existing public administration apparatuses and systems as well as cultural, economic, political and social factors. Differences of opinion still exist as to the meaning of the term corruption. This is primarily because individuals look at corruption from their own vantage points influenced by surrounding environment. But what is heartening is that in recent years corruption is viewed from a much broader perspective rather than looking at it from moral and functional angles only. The causes of corruption are as varied as the phenomenon itself. Corruption results from the presence of a number of factors. There are many forms of corruption. To understand the dynamics of so many types of corruption attempts have been made to classify different forms of corruption into broad categories. What transpires from such a categorization is that outsiders can sponsor corruption resultant of political scandal, institutionalized and administrative malfeasance. These government needs a well-coordinated, well-understood overall strategy that limits opportunities for abuse of public office, increases the likelihood that individuals will be able to profit from corrupt acts, whether they are giving and receiving bribes. Moreover, the civil societies of the country should come forward to establish the right of the people and to ensure the rule of law in Bangladesh. The professionals, the intellectuals through meetings and sittings, attending and participating the seminars and symposium and writing and contributing to the media can raise a general awareness to build up a corruption-free prosperous Bangladesh in future.
Fahim Ahmed